Network (Internet) Neutrality Essays -- Internet Net Politics

IntroductionNetwork neutrality (or more commonly, cryst eachise neutrality) is a problem related to the meshing that non enough people know about. Biases collapse in this politically heated debate and although roughly people that know even a little on the argument have strong opinions, it is decorous more and more app bent that few people are informed about this issue at all.To reiterate, network neutrality has great support on both sides. However, if this problem is not soon addressed, there could be major problems with how the public uses the internet.HypothesisBy smell at what is best for the public and for the internet as a whole, net neutrality laws should be put into place to preserve the characteristics of the internet that imprint it unique. translation of Net NeutralitySimply put, net neutrality is a network design paradigm that argues for broadband network providers to be completely detached from what education is sent over their networks. In essence, it argues that no bit of information should be prioritized over another. This principle implies that an information network such(prenominal) as the internet is most efficient and useful to the public when it is slight focused on a particular audience and instead attentive to multiple exploiters. To draw a frank example, take two content providers such as the Verizon website and the University of California website. If net neutrality were upheld, both entities would even out their monthly fees to the network provider and if all else equal, every bit of information from the Verizon website will make the same trek as one from say the UC Berkeley website. There would be no roadblocks or shortcuts any of the websites lowlife take to make the end user desire their content more. However, witho... ... trade will only hurt consumers if there is no government intervention. By allowing the telcos to story the internet, consumers will be forced to pay multiple times for the same service. On top of that, tiering could result in telcos becoming an internet gatekeeper that could greatly influence what stays and goes on the internet. steady still, the cases against net neutrality and for tiering are weak at best. Their arguments that content providers are receiving a free lunch are unsubstantiated and, in fact, the telcos are stipendiary twice already. There should be no need for them to be paid a third time. Worse of all is their misleading view that the free market will even out any inequities of their plans when they should clearly know that their industry is anything but a free market. If the internet is tiered, the greatest losses will be to the consumers. Network (Internet) Neutrality Essays -- Internet Net PoliticsIntroductionNetwork neutrality (or more commonly, net neutrality) is a problem related to the internet that not enough people know about. Biases abound in this politically heated debate and although most people that know even a little on the argument have strong opinions, it is becoming more and more apparent that few people are informed about this issue at all.To reiterate, network neutrality has great support on both sides. However, if this problem is not soon addressed, there could be major problems with how the public uses the internet.HypothesisBy looking at what is best for the public and for the internet as a whole, net neutrality laws should be put into place to preserve the characteristics of the internet that make it unique.Definition of Net NeutralitySimply put, net neutrality is a network design paradigm that argues for broadband network providers to be completely detached from what information is sent over their networks. In essence, it argues that no bit of information should be prioritized over another. This principle implies that an information network such as the internet is most efficient and useful to the public when it is less focused on a particular audience and instead attentive to multipl e users. To draw a simple example, take two content providers such as the Verizon website and the University of California website. If net neutrality were upheld, both entities would pay their monthly fees to the network provider and if all else equal, any bit of information from the Verizon website will make the same trek as one from say the UC Berkeley website. There would be no roadblocks or shortcuts any of the websites can take to make the end user desire their content more. However, witho... ... market will only hurt consumers if there is no government intervention. By allowing the telcos to tier the internet, consumers will be forced to pay multiple times for the same service. On top of that, tiering could result in telcos becoming an internet gatekeeper that could greatly influence what stays and goes on the internet. Even still, the cases against net neutrality and for tiering are weak at best. Their arguments that content providers are receiving a free lunch are unsu bstantiated and, in fact, the telcos are paid twice already. There should be no need for them to be paid a third time. Worse of all is their misleading view that the free market will even out any inequities of their plans when they should clearly know that their industry is anything but a free market. If the internet is tiered, the greatest losses will be to the consumers.

being independent Essay -- essays research papers

Graduating and getting out on your take in is a difficult step to falsify. There are a lot of things that you have to take into perspective. The choices that you make when you get out of highschool believe it or not are crucial and life altering. Decisions that you have to make are ones like what you want your career to be, where you want to live, and a big decision is buying a house. In making these decisions you have to do a lot of research and things to be prepared. I did a lot of research in hopes of finding a career that I would like and three things that I could see myself doing was owning my own spa ($100,000 yearly salary), managing a spa($60,000 yearly salary), or being an Esthetician. After thinking long and hard about it til now, I pertinacious I would like to be en Esthetician. An Esthetician is a person who gives care to skin in a non-medical way. An Esthetician makes a decent criterion of money which is important to have if I want to be able to afford a house.Bein g an Esthetician would be fun because I make merry working with people and I am good at working with them. I am also good with my hands which is necessary in my barter Making other people feel better about themselves makes me feel better about myself. One set back in that job however would have to be foot fungus. Feet aren?t my favorite thing on the human body especially with any kind of fungus on them. Going into a job that has a high paying salary often requires experience or schooling. I would have to take classes and work hard to get my emancipation so that it is easier for me to find a job. To become an Esthetician it is only required to have at least 17 weeks of classes which would cost under $1,000.00 and at the repeal of the classes I would graduate with my license in esthetics. I looked at job offers and have came to the conclusion that if I was an Esthetician I would make an estimated amount of $50,000.00 a year. That salary however understructure vary depending on yo ur qualities and experience.I plan on living in Long Beach, California and the reason being is I have always had the desire to live near the beach. Living far away I would have to take into consideration transportation. Being on my own requires you to be financially stable. So I figured out that if I had a 2002 Jeep Gand Cherokee La... ... in Long Beach which is a blotto town. So the price of my house is very reasonable for the area I am going to be living in. It could be cheaper to take out a 20 year loan and pay $100 a month more which would cover the interest but with my salary it is better for me to take a 30 year loan. I asked myself two questions at the beginning of this project, one being what if I run out of equity on my home with a reverse mortgage? I found that answer on www.google.com and it said that you can?t run out of money and they can not motor you to move out of your home. Another question was, when I am old if I have to go to a nursing home what will fleet to my house? That answer was also found on www.google.com and it was that if you are moved out for a year or longer then my home can be sold. All of these things and more have to be considered before you even buy a house. So researching and taking your time thinking about any detail is extremely important. You want to be able to afford what you have and still have money to save or spend at your discretion. I hope that one day this bit of research gives me some backing for when I actually do move out on my own.

The Film Amadeus Essay -- History Compare Movie Essays Papers

The Film Amadeus This paper will take a look into the movie Amadeus, to see if the film accurately depicts the history of Amadeus and the enlightenment of the characters. The season period that the film takes place in is the 18th century. There is a mixture of social class in this film. There are rulers and commoners shown in this film. The of import characters in the film which are Mozart, Salieri, and Emperor Joseph represent actual historical figures. The film was made in 1984. The film was somewhat accurate with the characters and the time, but for the some part the film never stated what year everything was happening in. slightlyone could tell that the time frame of the film was the 18th century, but you really couldnt tell the exact year it was happening. For example in one scene where Mozarts father comes to see him and his wife, we find out that she is pregnant. Later on in the movie she has a child. There was no reference of time in the film. You can tell that months pas sed through simple action like that one in the film. Another example would be in the time Amadeus took to exonerate his works. Its hard to tell how long he took to make his operas, the way the filmed showed. As for the characters the film depicted them well. There were some things that did seem right. For the way they showed Salieri to kill Mozart. Looking at information on this, I couldnt find a fact to state that Salieri killed Mozart. As stated in Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia he died of typhoid fever in Venna on Dec. 5 1791 his inhumation was attended by few friends and the place of his grave is unmarked. This states nothing that Salieri was the reason for Amadeus death. The film is trying to market the film as a tale of murder. hardly there really wasnt any murder in this film. More like a man willing to die to finish something he believed as a work of art. The film depicts Mozart much to killing him self then Salieri murdering him. Someone could argue that Salie ri did kill Mozart by dressing like his father to make the final opera. But this was Mozart own doing, as his obsession with having perfect music took him over. Not to get me wrong the film did a good job in showing Mozart. It had historical value and entertainment. This film can be viewed as a quick historical vie... ...nship to God differs from Mozart because Salieri didnt envy God he hated God for giving Mozart this gift. He did envy Mozart because he was everything he wanted to be.In conclusion this film gave a good depiction of Mozart. Some of the points in the film werent that accurate. Many little feature could of helped the film in be more of a accurate historical film. This wasnt a historical film, it was more for entertainment value. If this film was not an entertaining film like it was then it would have never have been should an award winning movie. This was a great film. I enjoyed it, found it funny, and moving at times. I know little about Mozart before. After seeing the film I did learn more about Mozart. This was not a boring film as I wanted to see what is going to happen. I would recommend this film to be seen. If mortal wants to be entertained they should see it. If someone wants to learn a little about Mozart they should see the film, but if you want to learn Amadeuss whole liveliness this film will not do this. So basically watch this film for enjoyment and to learn the general information about Mozart.

Educating Children about the Effects of Smoking :: Cigarettes Smoking Nicotine Education Essays

Educating Children about the Effects of SmokingMany children are unaware of the effects of smoking cigarettes. Children do non know that they can cause cancer. Are companies influencing adults or little children?Cartoons easily impress children at a young age. Cartoons come on violence laughter. Cartoons like Joe Camel promote the use of tobacco. Old Joe Camel because they believe that such figures will appeal to adult smokers and encourage them to change brands. As if cartoon interest adults over 18 geezerhood of age. Cartoons like Joe Camel is more likely to appeal to a younger generation. As I see little kids eyes stuck to the television screen, ceremonial the famous cartoons that they like, the cartoons have these characteristics they have bright colors and they act cool. I noticed that they like those cartoon. old Joe Camel has demonstrated appeal and recognition among young offspring. Joe Camel has the same characteristics he wears bright clothes and wears sunglasses. Wear ing sunglasses has always been cool to wear. And as they see Joe Camel acting cool they notice that smoking is likewise cool. Those commercials show that smoking is cool. The boys dream of becoming a cowherd has always existed in little kids. cowboys on the open range (the Marlboro image). flip long been a part of childhood fantasy. I as a child also had that fantasy. My little brother likes to wear tight jeans, squared shirts and his cowboy hat. He admires the real cowboys he even has a plastic horse he rides in. one day I caught him with a stick saying it is a cigaro (cigarette). undoubtably , some adults also respond to these campaigns. If the Marlboro appeals adults figure what ensures us that kids would not. Kids are very easily to be influenced by what may seem cool. Tobacco industries abuse the sinlessness of children with these advertisements.Smoking is an expensive habit. The average cost of a pack is $3.00 and the average smoker smokes a pack a day. In one year th ats wasting about $1095 or more a year Thats a lot of money. The Tobacco industry makes billions of dollars each year and they dont care about your existence all they want is your money.

Drug War Failures and Drug Company Successes Essays -- Argumentative P

In the May 1999 issue of Harpers Magazine, Joshua Wolf Shenks article Americas Altered States When does legal relief of paroxysm become illegal pursuit of pleasure? states From 1970 to 1998, the inflation-adjusted revenue of major pharmaceutical companies more than quadrupled to $81 billion, 24 percent of that from drugs affecting the central nervous scheme and sense organs. Sales of herbal medicines now exceed $4 billion a year. Meanwhile the war on Other drugs escalated dramatically. Since 1970 the federal antidrug budget has go up 3,700 percent and now exceeds $17 billion. More than one and half million people are arrested on drug charges each year, and 400,000 are now in prison. These numbers are just a window into an obvious truth We take more drugs and reward those who supply them. We punish more people for victorious drugs and especially punish those who supply them. On the surface, there is no conflict...The drug wars and the drug boom are interrelated, of the uniform bo dy. The hostility and veneration, the punishment and profits, these come from the same beliefs and the same mistakes. The pharmaceutical industry is booming the war on drugs is escalating. Are these statistics unconnected or do they reveal a deeper insight into our society? What factors yield our moral perception of drugs? What separates the good drugs from bad ones? In Shenks words, When does the legal relief of pain become illegal pursuit of pleasure? To answer these surprisingly hard questions, we must examine drugs themselves-the origins of their legality and the reasons given for their moral status. This examination will reveal some misguided explanations to the questions above-explanations that have obscured a more urgent enigma in ... ...cide for people fifteen to twenty-four to triple since 1960 (undoubtedly this rise in depression has fed the need for more legal and illegal drugs)? Maybe it is the discontentment and frustration that is behind the recent school massacre s that continue to happen (psychiatrists with their arsenal of drugs flock to these scenes ready to help the victims)? These are questions we must ask, and in this new get of inquiry we must not forget Shenks insightful words But we often dont realize that the feeling is inside, perhaps something that, with effort, could be experienced without the drugs or perhaps, as in the psychiatric equivalent of diabetes, something we will always need help with. Yet all too often we project upon the drug a forefinger that resides elsewhere. Many believe this to be a failure of character. If so, it is a failure the whole culture is implicated in.

Drug War Failures and Drug Company Successes Essays -- Argumentative P

In the May 1999 issue of Harpers Magazine, Joshua Wolf Shenks article Americas Altered States When does legal relief of pain become illegal pursuit of pleasure? states From 1970 to 1998, the inflation-adjusted revenue of major pharmaceutical companies more than quadrupled to $81 billion, 24 percent of that from drugs affecting the central nervous system and sense organs. Sales of herbal medicines straightway exceed $4 billion a year. Meanwhile the war on Other drugs escalated dramatically. Since 1970 the federal antidrug budget has risen 3,700 percent and now exceeds $17 billion. more(prenominal) than one and half million people are arrested on drug charges each year, and 400,000 are now in prison. These numbers are just a window into an obvious truth We take more drugs and reward those who supply them. We punish more people for taking drugs and especially punish those who supply them. On the surface, there is no conflict...The drug wars and the drug boom are interrelated, of the same body. The hostility and veneration, the punishment and profits, these come from the same beliefs and the same mistakes. The pharmaceutical industry is halcyon the war on drugs is escalating. Are these statistics unconnected or do they reveal a deeper insight into our society? What factors influence our moral perception of drugs? What separates the good drugs from liberal ones? In Shenks words, When does the legal relief of pain become illegal pursuit of pleasure? To answer these surprisingly difficult questions, we must examine drugs themselves-the origins of their legality and the reasons apt(p) for their moral status. This examination go away reveal some misguided explanations to the questions above-explanations that have obscured a more urgent problem in ... ...cide for people fifteen to two dozen to triple since 1960 (undoubtedly this rise in depression has fed the need for more legal and illegal drugs)? Maybe it is the discontent and frustration that is behind the re cent shallow massacres that continue to happen (psychiatrists with their arsenal of drugs flock to these scenes ready to help the victims)? These are questions we must ask, and in this new line of inquiry we must not go away Shenks insightful words But we often dont realize that the feeling is inside, perhaps something that, with effort, could be experienced without the drugs or perhaps, as in the psychiatric equivalent of diabetes, something we will always need help with. Yet all too often we project upon the drug a power that resides elsewhere. Many believe this to be a failure of character. If so, it is a failure the whole culture is implicated in.

What changes are needed to the present Ethiopian, Eritrean and international economic

The current policies in place designed to reduce the effects of famine in the Afri bottom countries of Ethiopia and Eritrea atomic number 18 a immense way of life from achieving their goals. deficit has been a regular occurrence for hundreds of years. Ethiopia and Eritrea depend on two rainy seasons a year to ample crop growth. Sweeping changes essential be do at local, national and international level if the severe problem of famine is to be brought under control and eventually eradicated.85% of the rural nation relies on rain, as farming is the main source of income (Jonathon Steele in Addis Ababa reports on efforts to contain disaster). In Africa annual rainfall varies dramatically and this plays a vital agency in the success or failure of crops each year. There are also regional differences in the level of rainfall throughout Africa which means that drouth cannot be assessed as a nationwide issue but as a regional issue.Current policies to regulate management of let down are for the most part ineffective. The over-cultivation and mismanagement of land is leading to shortfalls in food product. Food growth is increasing annually by 0.6%, in contrast population in Africa is ontogenesis at 2.9%. (www.ethioembassy.org.uk)Also read thisCheating in a Bottom Line EconomyThe ground surface of an area can be dramatically altered by processes such as overgrazing or over cultivation. This has a dramatic effect on the formation of clouds and subsequently levels of precipitation. (Draught and famine workbook) Steps l rest period to be interpreted to change the way land is cultivated to prevent over intensive cultivation, before any steps can be taken towards eradication of famine, if the African people cannot become self sufficient then they stand little chance of escaping the cycle of drouth leading to famine.Schemes and Policies designed to ease famine and droughtThe African government has introduced a range of schemes designed to reduce the risks posed by drought. Huge investment in cultivation has been made since 1991. This includes rural credit schemes and the creation of dams to catch rainfall. On an international level the World Bank has offered a 300 million loan for rural road building. The World Bank and International Monetary fund hand over given their support for the reduction of subsidies on fertiliser prices which has forced farmers to cut back on their character. (Jonathan Steele) Resulting in a fall in crop yields, leading to a fall in food supplies.A worrying trend is the increasing use of inorganic fertilisers by African farmers. They cause untold damage to the surroundings, releasing chemicals into the water, harming both people and vegetation. These inorganic fertilisers are purchased from the more affluent economies which means that African farmers must pay in cash for fertilisers which increase crop yields but which are ultimately destroying their own ecosystem in the process. This is indicative of the lack o f sustainable food production policies in Ethiopia and Eritrea. (www.ethioembassy.org.uk)A nationwide scheme introduced by the African government gives farmers who own more than 0.5 hectares of land, improved seed varieties, fertilisers and pesticides, on loan. This has seen results in many areas which have led to higher incomes for some farmers. Schemes such as this yield benefits today but the future cost and effect on the environment in the abundant term is as yet unknown. (Information from Oxfam, leaflet no OX450 May 1997)Schemes to counteract the problems of soil erosion have been introduced. Oxfam in partnership with thousands of volunteers in community programmes are attempting to rebuild the land. Millions of trees have been planted to help curb soil erosion and to put back nutrients into the soil. (Information from Oxfam).Reforestation projects are of paramount importance in regenerating the land and preventing soil erosion and leaching of vital nutrients.Types of farmingM any of the crops grown by African farmers are cash crops. These crops are often unsuitable for the environment in which they are grown and leach vital nutrients from the soil. As agriculture is the main source of income for 85% of the population cash crops are vital to the survival of many African farmers. Nomadic pastoralism is the most efficient form of land use in arid and semi arid lands where crop production is rattling risky due to high annual variances in climate. (Kilby 1993, Scoones 1995)Development policies introduced over the Last fifty years have undermined the traditional management of pastoralists. (Kilby 1993) Kilby states that they have focus on the extension of crop production into marginal areas, on sedentary ranching, and on an expansion of national parks. Such policies deny pastoralists resources and the ability to roam freely which they require to feed their herds, especially during periods of drought. Many of the policies introduced with the intent of reducin g the impact of draught on the peoples of Africa actually hinder them.ConclusionPolicy changes within agriculture are urgently needed. Technological change which will stabilise production at higher levels is also needed. Money of necessity to be invested in researching drought resistant crops, and a higher level of irrigation is also required if droughts are going to cease to be a catalyst for famine. Agricultural productivity needs to be dramatically increased in order for individuals to become self-sufficient.It is only through better management of agriculture that famine can be eradicated in the long term rather than simply on a short term basis.Policies need to be changed and action taken, short term, and more importantly long term, so as to reduce the severity and frequency of the occurrence of famines in Africa. The issue of famine and drought is highly complex and is very difficult to resolve. Famine is a direct result of drought however it is the vulnerability of people when faced with reduced food availability that turns the situation into a disaster. (Information from Oxfam) considerable term policies need to focus on food security, ensuring that food supplies are large enough to sustain the population and that excess food supplies are managed to get word the populations survival during drought years. In the past excess food supplies have been sold to foreign countries for profit rather than being kept to feed the African population during times of famine. Government policies need in the short term to focus on making people self sufficient before they can tackle issues of producing surplus crops to sell. Existing policies have made little difference to the situation. Much still needs to be done for the long term stripe of famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Nutrition and Nutrient Content Labels Essay

1. What was the purpose of testing distilled water with each indicator?The purpose of testing distilled water was to suck up a standard for the other samples.2. Given what you sleep together about diabetes, explain why diabetics have to pay attention to the types of victualss they ingest?Diabetics have to pay attention to the types of foods they eat because their bodies cannot break down and use glucose correctly. So, if they have too much glucose, they could go into diabetic shock.3. List any of the food samples that tested positive for more than peerless type of molecule. Explain why it is an returns for us to eat foods that contain more than one type of molecule.Peanuts tested positive for more than one type of molecule. The advantage of eating foods with more than one type of molecule is that the body can get the proper amount of the molecule they need more efficiently.4. In the United States, processed food essential be labeled showing information about the nutrient conten t. It has been argued that requiring nutritional information on these foods is too costly for consumers, because the cost to test the foods is added to the price of the food item. What is your position on this issue? In the space below, write a five to eight sentence paragraph giving at least tierce reasons in support of your position. Write a paragraph either in support of the current laws that require nutritional labeling, or in favor of reservation nutrient content labels optional. Support your position with logical, well thought out arguments.I feel that they should continue making nutrient content labels mandatory.

Good Eduction Essay

In my view scruples roughly severaliseiculars of life al styles raise prescriptive issues and then always require value judgements, i. e. , judgements well-nigh what we consider to be desirable. In plural democracies like ours we should non expect that at that place will still be nonpareil answer to the head as to what constitutes in effect(p) procreation. It p stirably is a sign of a healthy democracy that t hither(predicate) argon current discussions or so the intention and direction of such a crucial common endeavour as reproduction. After all, procreation is not simply a cloistered redeeming(prenominal) it is also and in my view for the frontmost time and foremost a public intelligent and thitherfore a division of public concern. bringing up, in its widest sense, is about how we welcome newcomers1 into our worlds. It therefore raises essential enquires about how we (re)present our worlds to newcomers something which involves selection, choice and jud gement. One source wherefore I consider it weighty to pay watchfulness to the research as to what constitutes reasoned education has to do with recent tendencies in policy, research and practice that seem to suggest that this scruple no longer matters or, to be to a greater extent than(prenominal) than precise, that seem to suggest that this question trick be resolved without engaging in discussions about value and take.One of these tendencies is the rise of an international league-table assiduity which is progressively influencing education policy at national and local level. Studies such as the Trends in planetary Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and, most notoriously, OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), generate a never-ending stream of comparative selective in take ination that argon supposed to tell us which educational systems are better and which are best.Although there is postal code against attempts to flummox such judgements, the worry with league-tables is that they give the impression that the data clear speak for themselves. As a result, the deeper question whether such studies indeed measure what we value or create a situation in which we are valuing what is or can be measured, is easily forgotten. Whether a high score on TIMMS, PIRLS or PISA does indeed indicate good education is an entirely outdoors question that crucially depends on what we expect from education.And even if we were to accept the validity of such measures, there are always further questions about the material and impudent costs involved in achieving a high score, both for individual students and for the educational system as a whole. 1 I use the edge newcomers to link up to any ace who is new in a particular situation. The category of newcomer therefore includes children, immigrants, but also those who are new in semblance to a particular trade or profession, such as student hairdressers, student teachers, and so on. Elsewhere I relieve oneself make a incase for see the idea of coming into the world as a fundamental education category. see Biesta 2006). 1 A second tendency that has contributed to the marginalisation of questions about good education can be gear up in calls for turning education into an evidence- found profession based on research k at presentledge about what works. 2 Again, I do ideate that to a certain completion it can be useful to examine the potentiality of particular educational practices and procedures, as long as one bears in mind that in the social domain there are at most probabilistic relationships betwixt actions and consequences and never de considerationinistic relationships mingled with causes and cause.After all, if didactics is going to have any impact on students, it is not because of some kind of mysterious force that teachers exert upon their students, but because of the concomitant that studen ts interpret and make sense of what they are being taught. The cerebrate between teaching and discipline are, in new(prenominal)(a) boys, achieved through processes of interpretation and such links are by definition weak. 3 But the most important dapple here is that soundness in itself is never a ufficient causal agency for adopting a particular approach or procedure. There is, after all, both effective and ineffective brain washing, just as there is effective and ineffective torturing. Effectiveness, to chuck it polarly, is an instrumental value a value that says something about the ways in which certain ends can be achieved, but which does not say anything about the desirableness of the ends in themselves. To address the latter question we subscribe normative judgements about what we consider educationally desirable.To call for effective schools, effective teaching, effective assessment, and so on, is therefore meaningless(prenominal) until one specifies what it is on e aims to achieve and why what one aims to achieve is desirable or good. With attend to educational effectiveness we therefore always exact to ask Effective for what? and also Effective for whom? 4 These are some of the reasons why I consider it important to put the question of good education back on the agenda of educators, researchers and policy makers.But my ambition with this lecture is not further to make a case for considering the goodness of education and in what follows I will say more than about the ways in which I think that this question might be addressed. I also involve to make a case for the importance of education or, to be more precise, for the need to use the expression of education when we discuss educational matters. Putting it this way may sound odd, so let me try to explain why I not only want to make a case for good education but also for good education.The Problem with Learning The simplest way to present my case for an educational wrangle is to con trast it with the language I think we should not be using when discussing educational matters and this is the language of watch outing. I am not suggesting that the word attainment has no place in education. But I do paying attention to urge that encyclopedism and education are two radically different purposes and that we shouldnt conflate them. This is not simply a matter of the proper use of language.The concepts we have available in a particular domain of human action such as education in a very(prenominal) fundamental sense structure what we can say, think, and do and therefore also impact upon what cannot be said, thought and done. This is why language matters, also in education. 2 3 For a detailed analysis see Biesta (2007a). For more on this see Vanderstraeten & Biesta (2006) Biesta (in pressa). 4 See Bogotch, Miron & Biesta (2007). 2My concerns about the notion of tuition or, to be more precise, about the conflation of study and education should be unders similarl yd against the background of the remarkable rise of the concept of learn within educational discussions over the past two or trinity decades a phenomenon to which I have referred as the rise of the new language of learning (see Biesta 2004a 2006). This rise can, for example, be found in the redefinition of teaching as the facilitation of learning or the provision of learning opportunities or learning experiences.It can be found in the use of the word learner instead of pupil or student or of the phrase adult learner instead of just adult. And it is manifest in the work shift of the field of adult education into that of lifelong learning. It is also worth noting that the word education no longer appears in the name of the two UK government departments that report with educational matters (they are now known as The Department for Children, Schools and Families and the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills), unlike in Scotland where there is at least still a console t able Secretary for pedagogy and Lifelong Learning.What maybe also fits in with this picture is the case of Watercliffe Meadow, an institution that was formed as a merge between trey former primary schools in Sheffield and that decided to refer to itself as a place of learning rather than a school. 5 The rise of the new language of learning can be seen as the expression of a more general trend to which I have referred with a deliberately ugly term as the learnification of education (see Biesta 2009). By this I mean the translation of everything there is to say about education in basis of learning and learners.A focalisation on learning is, of course, not entirely problematic. Although not a new insight, the idea that learning is not determined by teaching but depends on the activities of students can help teachers to rethink what they might do best to support their students. There are even emancipatory opportunities in the new language of learning to the extent to which it can empower individuals to take control of their own educational agendas. Yet there are also problems with the rise of the new language of learning and, more specifically, with the concept of learning itself.One problem with the word learning is that it is basically an individualistic concept. It refers to what people do as individuals. This stands in stark contrast to the concept of education which generally denotes a relationship. Whereas one can educate someone and someone can be educated by someone else, one cannot learn someone. This already reveals one problem with the language of learning it makes it difficult to give voice the incident that education is about relationships, and more specifically about relationships between teachers and students.The language of learning makes it difficult to acknowledge the relational character of education and also makes it difficult to raise questions about the particular role and responsibility of the educator in such relationships. This is one reason why the row education and learning are not the same and are not interchangeable. This does not mean, of course, that they have nothing to do with each other. One could say that the general aim of educational activities is that people will learn from them.But that doesnt make education into learning it simply says that learning is the intended outcome of educational processes and practices. All this also doesnt mean that people cannot learn without or outside of education. It simply highlights the fact that when we talk about education we refer 5 See http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Watercliffe_Meadow accessed 26 February 2009 3 to a specific setting in which learning takes place a setting, moreover, with a specific set of relationships, roles and responsibilities.A second problem with the word learning is that it is basically (but see hereafter) a process term. This means that it is open if not empty with regard to content. Yet in educational situations the aim is never si mply that learning will occur the interest is always in the learning of something and this, in turn, is connected to particular reasons for wanting the student to learn something. In education there is, therefore, always the double question of the learning of what and the learning for what. The problem with the language of learning is that it makes questions about content and purpose much more difficult to ask yet education, unlike learning, is always structured by purpose and content. This is the second reason why education and learning are not the same and why the language of learning is actually quite unhelpful in discussing educational matters. An example of the emptiness of the language of learning can be found in the Scottish tired for Chartered Teacher which, unlike the Standard for Full Registration, is rather permeated by a language of learning.In the document one of the four professional values and personal commitments is described as effectiveness in promoting learning in the classroom, which is further broken down into the requirement to demo the capacity to (1) effect further progress in pupils learning and phylogenesis (2) create and sustain a positive climate for learning and (3) use strategies which increase pupils learning (see GTCS 2002). Very little, if anything, is said about what students should learn and for what they should learn.Even less is said about what would be required from Chartered Teachers in terms of their ability to make informed value judgements about the content and direction of their teaching and wider educational endeavours. 6 When we look more closely at the language utilise, a phrase such as increasing pupils learning is actually rather incomprehensible in my view. in front I draw my conclusions about the language of learning and move to a discussion about the question of the goodness of education, there is one more peculiarity of the word learning that I wish to address briefly.Although there are ongoing discuss ions within the educational literature about definitions of learning, it is generally accepted that learning can at least be defined as any change that is not the result of maturation or, in a slightly more precise definition, as any more or less durable change that is not the result of maturation. In plus to this, many definitions specify the kinds of change that are considered to be important, such as changes in skilfulness, in cognition, in mastery and so on. One important point here is that learning refers to those changes that are the result of controlment ith our purlieus, which means that in this regard we can say that all learning is by definition experiential learning, i. e. , learning from experience and experiencing. An important implication of this line of thinking is that when we use the word learning such as in sentences like Mary has larn how to ride a bicycle or Mary has 6 There is a similar problem with regard to the notion of effectiveness which is also used as something that is good in itself, rather than that it is positioned as an instrumental value.This can, for example, be seen in the following two statements the Chartered Teacher should regularly and systematically demonstrate and evaluate his or her effectiveness as a teacher and the Chartered Teacher should demonstrate the capacity to contribute to the professional development of colleagues and to make a fuller contribution to the educational effectiveness of the school and the wider professional community than could be expected of teachers near the outset of their career (see GTCS 2002). 4 earned the first law of thermodynamics we are not so much describing something as that we are making a judgement about changes that have taken place. The point here is that when we look at Mary more carefully we will probably be able to find numerous changes going on all the time. The reason for identifying some of the changes as learning and others just as changes is because we value thes e changes and because we have reason to trust that these changes are the result of take aimment with the environment, not just effects of maturation. Which isnt to suggest that this distinction is easy to make and that the difference is always clear-cut. ) This implies that the use of the word learning always implies a value judgement. Learning, in other words, is not a descriptive term it is not a noun but it is an evaluative term. The upshot of this is that we can only use the word learning retrospectively, i. e. , after some change has happened. Whether any current activity will actually result in learning that is, whether it will actually result in more or less durable changes that we find valuable is not something we can know when we are engaged in he activity. Whether you will learn anything from earreach to this lecture is, in other words, a question that can only be answered in the future and sometimes it can take a very long time before we can conclude that we have learned something from a particular experience or event, which is an important argument against an exclusive focal point on short-time result in education. This implies that the word learning does not refer to an activity and we can summarise this by saying that learning is also not a verb.If we want to be clear and precise in the language we use to talk about education, we shouldnt therefore refer to the activities of our students as learning but rather use such words as studying, rehearsing, working, making an effort, etcetera. And for the same reason we shouldnt refer to our students as learners but should either refer to them with terms that specify the particular relationship they are in which is what the word pupil does or with terms that specify the activities they are engaged in which is what words like student or worker do. The Dutch progressive educator Kees Boeke referred to the students in his school as workers and referred to the school that he established and whic h still exists in Bilthoven as a workplace. ) For all these reasons I therefore wish to grapple that the language of learning is rather unhelpful for discussion of educational matters as it tends to blot out the relational dimensions of education the fact that education is always about teachers and students in relationship and also because it makes it more difficult to raise questions about content and purpose.I have also argued that when we use the word learning we are actually involved in a judgement about change, a judgement we can only make after the event. For that reason using the word learning to describe the activities of students is as imprecise as it is to refer to students as learners. This is also the reason why we cannot ask from students that they take responsibility for their own learning they can only take responsibility for their studying, their activities, their efforts, etcetera, and it is this that teachers should demand from students.All this also means th at learning can not be the prey of any strategy. Despite the many teaching and learning strategies that are being actual in schools, colleges and universities, and despite the fact that many of such institutions make individuals prudent for teaching & learning, it is only teaching and related aspects such as curriculum and assessment that can be the object of a strategy and thus can be the responsibility of individuals whose task it is to take care of what, with a simple word, we might perhaps best refer to as education. 5 If this suffices as an indication of why we need education that is, why we need an educational language with proper educational concepts I now wish to turn to questions about what constitutes good education. Good Education My ambition with raising the question of good education is not to specify what good education, a good school, a good college or a good university should look like. As I said in my introduction, we shouldnt expect that in plural democracie s like ours there will only be one answer to this question.Yet it is of crucial importance that there is an ongoing discussion about the content, purpose and direction of education first and foremost because education is and should be a matter of public concern. I do not only think that it is important to have a plurality of opinions about what constitutes good education. I also believe that it is important to have a plurality of actual educational practices. here I am partly biased as a result of my upbringing in the Netherlands, a country which over the past century has developed and has managed to maintain an interesting level of plurality within a state-funded system of compulsory education.Although there are some advantages of educational standardisation and the main advantage, one that we have to take very seriously from a social justice angle, is that it can bring about an equality of provision I also believe that there are many mischiefs to the MacDonaldisation (or per haps we should now call this the Starbuckisation) of education. One disadvantage of standardisation is that it takes away opportunities for educational professionals to make their own judgements about what is obligatory and desirable in the always particular situations they work in.My experience in England has been that the scope for professional judgement and professional action in education has systematically been eroded as a result of a massive top-down standardisation of education, combined with narrow-minded forms of inspection based on low trust. 7 At this point I can only say that I have encountered a significantly different culture within Scottish education, and here I particularly want to single out the idea of the Chartered Teacher as the expression of a belief in the power of education and as a serious investment in and commitment to the development of professionality and a high trust culture in education.A second disadvantage of educational standardisation is that it ta kes away any opportunity for a plurality of opinions about good education. This is often done through the construction of a quasi-consensus somewhat an alleged common sense notion of what good education is. One popular strain of such a quasi-consensus is the idea that in order to last out competitive within the global knowledge economy schools need to produce a highly-skilled workforce hence the most important task for schools is that of raising standards in English, science and mathematics.While this story may sound appealing and many policy makers at national and supra-national level (such as the OECD) seem to believe it it is based on questionable assumptions, for example because it assumes that in the knowledge economy we will all have complex jobs that require a high level of education, whereas in reality those jobs are only available for a happy few and the bulk of jobs in many post-industrial societies is to be found in the low-skilled and low-paid service industry (and here we can, again, refer to MacDonalds, Starbucks, call-centres, and the like).Yet the problem with such 7 For more on this see Biesta (2004b). 6 constructions about what good education is, is not only that they are based upon questionable assumptions. The problem of stories that express a quasi-consensus about good education is also that they suggest that there is no alternative. It is, however, not too difficult to see that instead of economic competitiveness, we could also argue that as a society we should give priority to care care for the elderly, care for the environment or to democracy and peaceful co-existence.Such priorities suggest a complete different set of educational arrangements and articulate radically different views about what good education might look like. My contribution to the discussion about what constitutes good education is not about suggesting alternative futures for education. Although this is important as well, I wish to confine myself in this lecture to a more modest task, viz. that of presenting a framework that might be helpful in asking more precise questions about what good education is or might be.My main point in suggesting this framework is to tensenesse that educational processes and practices serve a issuance of different functions and purposes. This not only means that the answer to the question as to what constitutes good education is likely to be different in relation to the different functions. By distinguishing between the different functions it also becomes possible to explore the extent to which violenceing one function might interfere with the quality of education in relation to one of the other functions.The framework can help, in other words, to think about costs and trade-offs of particular educational arrangements. Although the everyday use of the word education often gives the impression that it refers to a single reality, education is actually a composite concept. This becomes clear when we ask what ed ucation is for. In answering this question I wish to suggest that education serves (at least) three different functions.One important function of education has to do with qualification, that is, with the ways in which education contributes to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and dispositions that throw out us for doing something a doing which can range from the very specific (such as the training for a particular job) to the very general (such as in the case of liberal education). The qualification function is without doubt one of the study functions of organised education and is an important rationale for having state-funded education in the first place. The argument, as I have mentioned, is often an economic one, i. . , that people need knowledge and skills in order to become employable. But the acquisition of knowledge and skills is also important for other aspects of peoples lives. Here we can think, for example, of political literacy the knowledge and skills needed to e xercise ones citizenship rights or cultural literacy the knowledge and skills considered to be indispensable for functioning in society more generally. 8 A second function of education has to do with the ways in which, through education, individuals become part of existing socio-cultural, political and moral orders. This is the socialisation function of education. Schools partly engage in socialisation deliberately, for example, in the form of values education, character education, religious education or citizenship education, or, and this is more explicit at the level of colleges and universities, in relation to professional socialisation. Socialisation also happens in less visible ways, as has been made clear in the literature on the hidden curriculum and the role of education in the reproduction of social inequality. It is, in What kind of knowledge and skills we need to function in society is, of course, a complicated matter.I do not have the space to go into this here, but see Biesta (2002). 8 7 other words, both an important function and an important effect of (engaging in) education. Whereas some would argue that education should only charge on qualification this is often seen as the justification of the traditional school as place for the transmission and acquisition of knowledge and whereas others defend that education has an important role to play in the socialisation of children and young people, there is a third function of education which is different from both qualification and socialisation.This function has to do with the ways in which education contributes to the individualisation or, as I prefer to call it for a number of philosophical reasons, the subjectification of children and young people. The individualisation or subjectification function might perhaps best be understood as the opposite of the socialisation function. It is not about the insertion of newcomers into existing orders, but about ways of being that hint at indepen dence from such orders ways of being in which the individual is not simply a specimen of a more encompassing order.It is, to put a astronomical and complex concept against it, about the ways in which education makes a contribution to human freedom. 9 Whether all education actually does contribution to individuation is debatable. Some would argue that this is not necessarily the case and that the actual influence of education can and should be confined to qualification and socialisation. Others would argue, however, that education always impacts on individuals and their modes and ways of being and that, in this sense, education always has an individuating effect. What matters more, however and here e need to shift the focus of the discussion from questions about the functions of education to questions about the aims and ends of education is the quality of individuation, i. e. , the question what forms of subjectivity are made possible in and through particular educational arran gements. It is in relation to this that some would argue and actually have argued that any education worthy of its name should always allow for forms of individuation and subjectification that allow those being educated to become more main(a) and independent in their thinking and acting.The distinction between the three functions of education, that is, between three areas in which education operates and has effects, can be helpful when we engage in discussions about what constitutes good education because it can make us aware of the fact that the question about good education is a composite question it consists of (at least) three different questions. An answer to the question what constitutes good education should therefore always specify its views about qualification, socialisation and individuation even in the improbable case that one would wish to argue that only one of them matters.To say that the question of what constitutes good education is a composite question, is not t o suggest that the three dimensions of education can and should be seen as entirely separate. The contrary is the case. When we engage in qualification, we always also impact on socialisation and on individuation. Similarly, when we engage in socialisation, we always do so in relation to particular content and hence link up with the qualification function and will have an impact on individuation.And when we engage in education that puts individuation first, we will 9 I wish to emphasise that the idea of freedom can be articulated in a range of different ways, from egocentric, self-obsessed freedom to do anything one wants to amenable, relational and difficult freedom to use a phrase form the philosopher Emmanuel Levinas. 8 usually still do so in relation to particular curricular content and this will always also have socialization effects. The three functions of education an therefore best be represented in the form of a Venn-diagram, i. e. , as three overlapping areas, and the more interesting and important questions are actually about the intersections between the areas rather than the individual areas per se. The distinction between the three functions of education is not only important when we engage in discussions about the aims and purposes of education and the shape and form of good education it can also be a helpful framework for analysing existing educational practices and policies.With regard to this I just want to make one brief observation which is that in many recent discussions about the shape and form of education, particularly at the level of education policy, the discussion is shifting more and more towards the socialisation function of education. Increasingly discussions about the aims and ends of education try to describe the kind of person that should be produced through education, rather than that the focus is on the things that should be learned as a result of engagement with education.A good example of this can be found in the Scott ish programme for Excellence which, although it refers to itself as a document about Curriculum, actually specifies the intended outcomes of education in terms of personal qualities and many of you in this room will be familiar with the four capacities that frame the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence successful learners, confident individuals, responsible citizens, effective contributors. 0 Although I generally welcome attempts to introduce new languages into the educational discussion as they allow us to see and do things differently, I do think that the shift towards socialisation such as expressed in the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence is worrying for two reasons. One is that by emphasising what students should be or become, questions about what they should know and be able to do become secondary. The danger here is, in other words, that we forget to pay satisfactory attention to the qualification function of education and thus might forget that in many cases and for many individuals knowledge is still power.The other reason why I think that the shift towards socialisation, towards the production of a particular kind of individual, is worrying, is that it gets us too far away from the individuation or subjectification function of education. It puts the emphasis too much on moulding individuals according to particular templates and provides too little opportunity for ways of being that question and challenge such templates. In my own research I have explored this issue particularly in relation to citizenship 11 .Here I have argued that the idea of responsible citizenship puts the emphasis too much on a-political forms of citizenship that are mainly confined to doing good deeds in the community, and provides too little opportunity for the acquisition of political literacy, the furtherance of political activism and the development of political agency. Good education in the domain of citizenship should therefore not be about the production of obedient c itizens through effective socialisation, but should also operate in the domain of individuation and 10The National Curriculum for England and Wales has recently adopted a similar language to articulate the aims of education for key stage 3 and 4. It is interesting to see, however, that they have included three of the four Scottish capacities viz. , successful learners, confident individuals and responsible citizens but not that of effective contributors. See http//curriculum. qca. org. uk/key-stages-3-and-4/aims/index. aspx accessed 1 March 2009 11 See, e. g. , Biesta & Lawy (2006) Biesta (2007b) Biesta (2008) Biesta (in pressb). subjectification by promoting forms of political agency that both contribute to and are able to question the existing social, cultural and political order. From this angle it is perhaps significant that the word critical does not appear in any of the four capacities of the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence. This brings me to my concluding remarks. Conclu sions In this lecture I have tried to make a case for good education. I have not done this by specifying what I think a good school, college or university should look like.What I have done instead is first of all to argue for the importance of the question of good education itself. I have argued, in other words, that in our discussions and deliberations about education we should acknowledge openly and explicitly that we are dealing with normative questions, and hence with questions that require value judgements. These are questions, in other words, that can not be resolved simply by having more information, more data, more knowledge or more research.Secondly I have argued that in order to address the question of good education properly we need to make sure that we have a expression that is appropriate for what we are discussing. It is here that I have argued for the importance of an educational vocabulary rather than a vocabulary of learning. Thirdly, I have introduced a distinctio n between different functions and purposes of education that might help us to ask more precise questions and have more focused discussions about what good education might look like.I see the importance of making the distinction between the three functions of education first and foremost in that it can help us to find a balance in our educational endeavours rather than to end up in one of the possible extremes. Just as an exclusive focus on qualification is problematic and I think that the damaging effects of such a focus are continuing to influence the lives of many students and teachers around the world I also think that an exclusive focus on socialisation is problematic and perhaps we are beginning to see some of the problems of such an approach as well.In all cases it belongs to my definition of good education that there is also equal attention to opportunities for individuation and subjectification so that education can continue to contribute to what the philosopher Michel F oucault has so aptly described as the undefined work of freedom. Finally for me the question of good education does not stand on its own. I do believe that we are living in a time in which the question of goodness is one that we should ask about all our collective human endeavours.This is first of all important in the economic sphere, which is why I would argue that we urgently need to shift the discussion from questions about profitable banking to questions about good banking. It is also important in the domain of politics and democracy, which means that there is also a need to engage with questions about what constitutes good politics and good democracy. The particular answers we give to these questions are perhaps slightly less important than our commitment to seeing these questions for what they are viz. ormative questions and our commitment to a continued engagement with these questions, both in generating answers to the question as to what might constitute good education an d by continuing to raise critical questions about such answers as well. Good education should at least enable and empower everyone to engage in such crucial deliberations about the shape, form and direction of our collective endeavours. Thank you. 10 References Biesta, G. J. J. (2002). How general can Bildung be? Reflections on the future of a modern educational ideal.British Journal of Philosophy of Education 36(3), 377-390. Biesta, G. J. J. (2004a). Against learning. Reclaiming a language for education in an age of learning. Nordisk Pedagogik 23, 70-82. Biesta, G. J. J. (2004b). Education, accountability and the ethical demand. Can the pop potential of accountability be regained? Educational Theory 54 (3), 233250. Biesta, G. J. J. (2006). Beyond Learning Democratic Education for a Human Future. Boulder, Co Paradigm Publishers. Biesta, G. J. J. (2007a). wherefore what works wont work.Evidence-based practice and the democratic deficit of educational research. Educational Theory 57 (1), 1-22. Biesta, G. J. J. (2007b). Education and the democratic person Towards a political understanding of democratic education. Teachers College Record 109(3), 740-769. Biesta, G. J. J. (2008). What kind of citizen? What kind of democracy? Citizenship education and the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence. Scottish Educational Review 40(2), 38-52. Biesta, G. J. J. (2009). Good Education in an eld of Measurement.Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability 21(1), 33-46. Biesta, G. J. J. (in pressa). On the weakness of education. In D. Kerdeman et al. (eds), Philosophy of Education 2009. Biesta, G. J. J. (in pressb). What kind of citizenship for European Higher Education? Beyond the competent industrious citizen. European Educational Research Journal 8(2). Biesta, G. J. J. & Lawy, R. S. (2006). From teaching citizenship to learning democracy. Overcoming individualism in research, policy and practice.Cambridge Journal of Education 36(1), 63-79. Bogotch, I. , Miron, L & Bi esta, G. (2007). Effective for What Effective for Whom? dickens Questions SESI Should Not Ignore. In T. Townsend (ed), International Hand curb of School Effectiveness and School Improvement (93-110). Dordrecht/Boston Springer. GTCS (General Teaching Council for Scotland) (2000). The standard for chartered teacher. Vanderstraeten, R. & Biesta, G. J. J. (2006). How is education possible? A pragmatist account of communication and the social organisation of education.British Journal of Educational Studies 54(2), 160-174. 11 Biography Gert Biesta (1957) is Professor of Education at the Stirling Institute of Education and visit Professor for Education and Democratic Citizenship at Orebro and Malardalen University, Sweden. He is editor-in-chief of Studies in Philosophy and Education, an international journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. Before joining Stirling in December 2007 he worked at the University of Exeter (from 1999) and before that at several Universities in th e Netherlands.He has a degree in Education from Leiden University, a degree in Philosophy from Erasmus University Rotterdam, and a PhD in Education from Leiden University (1992). From 1995-1997 he was a Spencer Post Doctoral Fellow with the National Academy of Education, USA. A major focus of his research is the relationship between education and democracy. His theoretical work focuses on different ways of understanding democracy, democratisation and democratic education, with particular attention to questions about educational communication both at the micro-level of classroom interaction and the macro-level of intercultural communication.He has also written about the philosophy and methodology of educational research, and the relationships between educational research, educational policy and educational practice. His empirical research focuses on democratic learning of young people and adults, with a particular emphasis on democratic learning in everyday settings. He has a researc h interest in vocational education and lifelong learning, democratic conceptions of the learning society, learning theories and theories of education, the professional learning of teachers, and the civic role of Higher Education.He has published widely in many national and international journals. Recent books include Derrida & Education (Routledge 2001 co-edited with Denise Egea-Kuehne) Pragmatism and Educational Research (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003 co-authored with Nicholas C. Burbules) Beyond learning. Democratic education for a human future (Paradigm Publishers, 2006 a Swedish translation, Bortom larandet Demokratisk utbildning for en mansklig framtid, was published by Studentlitteratur in 2006 a Danish translation will appear in 2009) Improving learning cultures in Further Education (Routledge co-authored ith David James) an English and a German version of George Herbert Meads Lectures on Philosophy of Education (coedited with Daniel Trohler Verlag Julius Klinkhardt 2008 Paradig m Publishers 2008) Education, democracy and the moral life (Springer 2009 co-edited with Michael Katz ande Susan Verducci) Derrida, Deconstruction and the politics of pedagogy (Peter Lang 2009 co-authored with Michael A. Peters) Rethinking contexts for teaching and learning.Communities, activities and networks (Routledge 2009 coedited with Richard Edwards and Mary Thorpe). In 2008 his book Beyond Learning won the American Educational Studies Association Critics Choice Book Award. Contact details The Stirling Institute of Education, University of Stirling Stirling, FK9 4LA Scotland, UK e-mail gert. biestastir. ac. uk website www. gertbiesta. com 12 The Stirling Institute of Education University of Stirling Stirling FK9 4LA www. ioe. stir. ac. uk Scottish Charity Number SC 011159

Deviance. Topic Questions

University of Wollongong look Online Faculty of Arts Papers Faculty of Arts 1993 What Is Hegemonic Masculinity? Mike Donaldson University of Wollongong, emailprotected edu. au publication Details Donaldson, M, What Is Hegemonic Masculinity? , Theory and Society, Special Issue Masculinities, October 1993, 22(5), 643-657. Copyright 1993 Springer. The original publication is avail subject here at www. springerlink. com. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library emailprotected edu. au Theory and Society, Vol. 22, No. 5,Special Issue Masculinities, Oct. , 1993, pp. 643-657. What Is Hegemonic Masculinity? Mike Donaldson Sociology, University of Wollongong, Australia Structures of heaviness, forces for wobble A developing r all(prenominal) deep down the growing theoretical literature on custody and masculinity concerns the relationship of grammatical gender systems to the social for mation. Crucially at issue is the question of the indecorum of the gender assure. Some, in particular Waters, be of the opinion that change in masculine gender systems historically has been caused exogenously and that, without those external incidentors, the systems would stably reproduce. 1) For Hochschild, the motor of this social change is the economy, particularly and currently, the decline in the purchasing power of the male wage, the decline in the number and proportion of male skilled and unskilled jobs, and the rise in female jobs in the growing services sector. (2) I concur argued that gender relations themselves ar bisected by class relations and vice-versa, and that the salient moment for abstract is the relation amidst the two. (3) On the another(prenominal) side of the statement, others have been trying to establish the laws of motion of gender systems.Connell, for instance, has insisted on the independence of their structures, patterns of stool. and determina tions, most notably in his devastating critiques of sex fictional character theory. Change is always something that happens to sex roles, that impinges on them. It comes from outside, as in discussions of how technological and economic changes demand a shift to a modern male role for men. Or it comes from inside the person, from the real self that protests against the artificial restrictions of constraining roles.Sex role theory has no way of grasping change as a dialectic arising inside gender relations themselves. It has no way of grasping social dynamics that can sole(prenominal) be seriously considered when the historicity of the structure of gender relations, the gender order of the society, is the point of departure. (4) This concern with broad, historical drift is linked to the question of male sexual politics. Clformer(a), if men wish to challenge patriarchy and win, the central question mustiness be, who and where ar the army of redressers? (5) muchover the policy- making project of rooting out the sexism in masculinity has proved intensely difficult because the problem of constructing a movement of men to dismantle hegemonic masculinity is that its logic is not the articulation of collective interest but the attempt to dismantle that interest. (6) It is this conception of hegemonic masculinity on which the argument for autonomy of the gender structures turns, for it is this that links their broader historical sweep to lived experience.Put only if, if the gender system has an independence of structure, movement, and determinations, then we should be able to identify counter-hegemonic forces within it if these be not identifiable, then we must question the autonomy of the gender system and the existence of hegemonic masculinity as central and specific to it. On the other hand, if gender systems are not autonomous, then the question why, in specific social formations, do certain ways of being male predominate, and particular sorts of men ru le? system to be answered and the resistances to that order still remain to be identified.The political implications of the issue are clear. If on that point is an independent structure of masculinity, then it should produce counter-hegemonic movements of men, and all effectual blokes should get involved in them. If the structure is not independent, or the movements not counterhegemonic, or the counter-hegemony not moving, then political practice leave alone not be centred on masculinity and what do we men do then, virtually the masculine images in and through which we have shaped a world so uncivilised to most of its inhabitants?Hegemony and masculinity Twenty years ago, Patricia Sexton suggested that male norms stress values such as courage, inner direction, certain forms of aggression, autonomy. mastery, technological skill, radical solidarity, put on the line and considerable amounts of stumblebumness in mind and body. (7) It is only relatively recently that social sc ientists have sought to link that insight with the concept of hegemony, a pattern as slippery and difficult as the idea of masculinity itself.Hegemony, a pivotal concept in Gramscis Prison Notebooks and his most significant contribution to red ink thinking, is about the winning and holding of power and the formation (and destruction) of social aggroups in that process. In this sense, it is importantly about the ways in which the impression class establishes and maintains its domination. The talent to impose a definition of the situation, to set the terms in which tear downts are understood and issues discussed, to formulate ideals and define morality is an essential part of this process.Hegemony involves persuasion of the greater part of the population, particularly through the media, and the organization of social institutions in ways that appear natural, ordinary normal. The state, through punishment for non-conformity, is crucially involved in this dialogue and enforcemen t. (8) Heterosexuality and homophobia are the bedrock of hegemonic masculinity and any understanding of its nature and meaning is predicated on the feminist insight that in general the relationship of men to women is oppressive.Indeed, the term hegemonic masculinity was invented and is used primarily to maintain this central focal point in the critique of masculinity. A fundamental element of hegemonic masculinity. then. is that women exist as potence sexual objects for men objet dart men are negated as sexual objects for men. Women provide heterosexual men with sexual validation, and men compete with each other for this. This does not necessarily involve men being particularly nasty to individual women. Women may incur as oppressed by non-hegemonic masculinities, may even find some expressions of the hegemonic pattern to a greater extent familiar and manageable. (9)More than fifty books have appeared in the English language in the last decade or so on men and masculinity. What i s hegemonic masculinity as it is presented in this growing literature? Hegemonic masculinity, particularly as it appears in the wee-wees of Carrigan, Connell, and Lee. Chapman, Cockburn, Connell, Lichterman, Messner, and Rutherford, involves a specific strategy for the hyponymy of women. In their view, hegemonic masculinity concerns the dread of and the flight from women. A heathenly idealized form, it is both a personal and a collective project, and is the common sense about breadwinning and manhood.It is exclusive, anxiety-provoking, internally and hierarchicly differentiated, brutal, and violent. It is pseudo-natural, tough, contradictory, crisis-prone, rich, and socially sustained. While centrally connected with the institutions of male dominance, not all men practice it. though most benefit from it. Although cross-class. it oft excludes workingclass and black men. It is a lived experience, and an economic and cultural force, and dependent on social arrangements. It is cons tructed through difficult negotiation over a livelihood-time. Fragile it may be, but it constructs the most dangerous things we live with.Resilient, it incorporates its own critiques, but it is, nonetheless, unravelling. (10) What can men do with it? According to the authors cited above, and others, hegemonic masculinity can be analyzed, distanced from, appropriated, negated, challenged, reproduced, separated from, renounced, given up, chosen, constructed with difficulty, confirmed, imposed, departed from, and modernized. (But not, apparently, enjoyed. ) What can it do to men? It can fascinate, undermine, appropriate some mens bodies, organize, impose, pass itself off as natural, deform, harm, and deny. But not, calculateingly, enrich and satisfy. ) Which groups are most progressive in the making of masculinist sexual ideology? It is true that the New Right and fascism are vigorously constructing aggressive, dominant, and violent models of masculinity. But generally, the most i nfluential agents are considered to be priests, journalists, advertisers, politicians, psychiatrists, designers, playwrights, film makers, actors, novelists, musicians, activists, academics, coaches, and sportsmen. They are the weavers of the fabric of hegemony as Gramsci put it, its organizing intellectuals. These wad regulate and manage gender regimes articulate experiences, fantasies, and perspectives reflect on and interpret gender relations. (11) The cultural ideals these regulators and managers create and perpetuate. we are told, need not correspond at all closely to the actual personalities of the majority of men (not even to their own ). The ideals may sojourn in fantasy figures or models remote from the lives of the unheroic majority, but while they are very public, they do not exist only as publicity.The public spirit of hegemonic masculinity, the argument goes. is not necessarily even what sizeable men are, but is what sustains their power, and is what large numbers o f men are motivated to indorse because it benefits them. What most men support is not necessarily what they are. Hegemonic masculinity is naturalised in the form of the hero and presented through forms that revolve around heroes sagas, ballads, westerns, thrillers, in books, films, television, and in -sporting events. (12) What in the early literature had been pen of as the male sex ole is best seen as hegemonic masculinity, the culturally idealised form of masculine character which, however, may not be the usual form of masculinity at all. To say that a particular form of masculinity is hegemonic means that its exaltation stabilizes a structure of dominance and oppression in the gender order as a whole. To be culturally exalted, the pattern of masculinity must have exemplars who are celebrated as heroes. (13) But when we examine these bearers of hegemonic masculinity, they seem scarcely up to the task, with more than just feet of clay.A football star is a model of hegemonic mas culinity. (14) But is a model? When the handsome Australian Rules football player, Warwick the tightest shorts in sports Capper, combined football with modelling, does this confirm or decrease his exemplary status? When Wally (the King) Lewis explained that the price he will wage for another five years playing in the professional Rugby League is the surgical replacement of both his knees, this is undoubtedly the stuff of good, old, tried and true, tough and stoic, masculinity.But how powerful is a man who mutilates his body, almost as a occasion of course, merely because of a job? When Lewis announced that he was quitting the very prestigious carry of Origin football series because his year-old daughter had been diagnosed as hearing-impaired, is this hegemonic? In Australian surfing champion, iron man Steve Donoghue, Connell has found an exemplar of masculinity who lives an exemplary recital of hegemonic masculinity. But, says Donoghue, I have loved the idea of not having to wo rk .Five hours a day is still a lot but it is something that I enjoy that people are not telling me what to do. This is not the right stuff. Nor are hegemonic men supposed to admit to strangers that their life is like being in jail. Connell reveals further contradictions when he explains that Steve, the exemplar of masculine toughness, finds his own exemplary status prevents him from doing exactly what his peer group defines as thoroughly masculine behaviour going wild, showing off, rummy driving, getting into fights, defending his own prestige. This is not power. And when we look to see why many young men take up sport we find they are driven by the hunger for affiliation in the words of Hammond and Jablow we see the felt need for connectedness and closeness. How hegemonic is this? (15) Homosexuality and counter-hegemony Let us, however, pursue the argument by turning now to examine those purported counter-hegemonic forces that are supposedly provided by the gender system itsel f. There are three main reasons why male homoeroticism is regarded as counter-hegemonic. Firstly, hostility to homo- exuality is seen as fundamental to male heterosexuality secondly, homophileity is associated with effeminacy and thirdly, the form of homosexual pleasure is itself considered subversive. (16) Antagonism to gay men is a standard feature of hegemonic masculinity in Australia. Such hostility is inherent in the construction of heterosexual masculinity itself. Conformity to the demands of hegemonic masculinity, pushes heterosexual men to homophobia and rewards them for it, in the form of social support and reduced anxiety about their own manliness.In other words, male heterosexual identity is sustained and affirmed by aversion for, and fear of, gay men. (17) Although homosexuality was compatible with hegemonic masculinity in other times and places, this was not true in post-invasion Australia. The most obvious characteristic of Australian male homosexuals, according to J ohnston and Johnston, has been a double deviance. It has been and is a constant struggle to attain the goals set by hegemonic masculinity, and some men challenge this rigidity by acknowledging their own effeminacy. This rejection and affirmation assisted in changing homosexuality from being an aberrant (and widespread) sexual practice, into an identity when the homosexual and lesbian subcultures reversed the hegemonic gender roles, mirror-like, for each sex. Concomitantly or consequently, homosexual men were socially defined as effeminate and any kind of powerlessness, or a refusal to compete, readily becomes involved in the resourcefulness of homosexuality (18) While being subverted in this fashion, hegemonic masculinity is also threatened by the assertion of a homosexual identity confident that homosexuals are able to give each other sexual pleasure.According to Connell, the inherent egalitarianism in gay relationships that exists because of this transitive structure (my lovers lover can also be my lover), challenges the hierarchical and oppressive nature of male heterosexuality. (19) However, over time, the connection between homosexuality and effeminacy has broken. The flight from masculinity evident in male homosexuality, noted cardinal years ago by Helen Hacker, may be true no longer, as forms of homosexual behaviour seem to pack an exaggeration of some aspects of hegemonic masculinity, notably the cult of oughness and physical aggression. If hegemonic masculinity necessarily involves aggression and physical dominance, as has been suggested, then the affirmation of gay sexuality need not imply support for womens liberation at all, as the chequered experience of women in the gay movement attests. (20) More than a decade ago, Australian lesbians had noted, We make the mistake of presumptuous that lesbianism, in itself, is a radical position. This had led us, in the past, to support a whole range of events, ventures, political perspectives, etc. ust bec ause it is lesbians who hold those beliefs or are doing things. It is as ludicrous as believing that every working class person is a communist. (21) Even though there are many reasons to think that there are important inequalitys in the expression and construction of womens homosexuality and mens homosexuality, perhaps there is something to be learned from this. Finally, it is not gayness that is attractive to homosexual men, but maleness. A man is lusted after not because he is homosexual but because hes a man. How counter-hegemonic can this be? changing men, gender segmentation and paying and unpaid work Connell notes, Two possible ways of working for the ending of patriarchy which move beyond guilt, fixing your head and heart, and blaming men, are to challenge gender segmentation in paid work and to work in mens counter-sexist groups. Particularly, though, countersexist politics need to move beyond the small consciousness raising group to operate in the workplace, unions and t he state. (22) It is hard to imagine men challenging gender segmentation in paid work by voluntarily dropping a third of their wage packet.But it does happen, although perhaps the increasing trickle of men into womens jobs may have more to do with the prodding of a certain invisible finger. Lichterman has suggested that more political elements of the mens movement contain human service role players, students, parttimers. and odd-jobbers. Those in paid work, work in over-whelmingly female occupations -counselling, nursing, and elementary teaching are mentioned. In this sense, their position in the labour market has made them predisposed to criticise hegemonic masculinity, the common sense about breadwinning and manhood. It can also be seen as a defence against the loss of these things, as men attempt to colonize womens occupations in a job market that is increasingly competitive, particularly for mens jobs.? (23) If we broaden the focus on the desegmentation of paid work to includ e unpaid work, more interesting things occur. While Connell has suggested that hegemonic masculinity is confirmed in fatherhood, the practice of parenting by men in truth seems to undermine it. Most men have an exceptionally impoverished idea about what fatherhood involves, and indeed, active parenting doesnt even enter into the idea of manhood at all.Notions of fathering that are acceptable to men concern the exercise of impartial discipline, from an emotional distance and removed from favouritism and partiality. In hegemonic masculinity, fathers do not have the message or the skill or the need to care for children, especially for babies and infants, while the relationship between female parents and young children is seen as crucial. Nurturant and care-giving behaviour is simply not manly. Children, in turn, tend to have more abstract and impersonal relations with their fathers.The problem is severely compounded for divorced fathers, most of whom have passing little emotional con tact with their children. (24) As Messner has explained, while the man is out there establishing his .name in public, the woman is usually home caring for the day-to-day and moment-to-moment needs of her family . Tragically, only in mid- life, when the children have already left the nest do some men discover the importance of connection and intimacy. (25) Nonetheless, of the little time that men spend in unpaid work, proportionally more of it goes now into child care.Russell has begun to explore the possibility that greater participation by men in parenting has led to substantial shifts in their ideas of masculinity. The reverse is probably true too. Hochschild found in her study that men who shared care with their partners rejected their own detached, absent and overbearing fathers. The number of men primarily responsible for parenting has grown dramatically in Australia, increasing five-fold between 1981 and 1990. The number of families with dependent children in which the man w as not in paid work but the woman was, rose from 16,200 in 1981 to 88,100 in 1990.Women, however, still outnumber men in this position ten to one. (26) Not only a mans instrumental relations with others are challenged by close parenting, but so are his instrumental relations with himself. Mens sense of themselves is threatened by intimacy. Discovering the affection, autonomy, and agency of babies and children, disconcert by an unusual inability to cope, men are compelled to re-evaluate their attitude to themselves. In Russells study, the fathers who provided primary child care constantly marvelled at and welcomed the changes that had taken place in their relationships with their children. (27) Even Neville Wran, the former premier of the Australian state of New South Wales whose most renowned political activity was putting the blowtorch to the belly of political opponents. said of fatherhood, which occurred in his sixties, Its making me a more patient, tolerant, understanding huma n being. Im a real marshmallow. (28) The men who come to full-time fathering do not, however, regard themselves as unmanly, even though their experiences have resulted in major shifts in their ideas about children, child care, and women.In fact, one quarter of them considered these changes a major gain from their parenting work. This was despite the fact that these mens male friends and workmates were highly critical of their abandonment of the breadwinner role, describing them, for instance, as being bludgers, a bit funny, a bit of a woman, and under the thumb. (29) This stigmatism may be receding as the possibility of securing the childrens future, once part of the fathers responsibility in his relations with the public sphere, is becoming less and less possible as unemployment bites deeper. 30) Child-minders and day-care workers have confirmed that the children of active fathers were more secure and less anxious than the children of non-active fathers. Psychological studies hav e revealed them to be better developed socially and intellectually. Furthermore, the results of active fatherhood seem to last. There is considerable evidence to suggest that greater interaction with fathers is better for children, with the sons and daughters of active fathers displaying lower levels of sex-role stereotyping. (31) Men who share the second shift had a happier family life and more harmonious marriages.In a longitudinal study, Defrain found that parents reported that they were happier and their relationships improved as a result of shared parenting. In an American study, househusbands felt ordained about their increased contribution to the family-household, paid work became less central to their definition of themselves, and they noted an improvement in their relationships with their female partners. (32) One of the substantial bases for metabolism for Connells six changing heterosexual men in the environmental movement as the learning of house servant labour, which involves giving to people, looking after people. In the akin sense that feminism claimed emotional life as a source of dignity and self respect, active fathers are challenging hegemonic masculinity. For hegemonic masculinity, real work is elsewhere, and relationships dont require energy, but provide it. (33) There is also the question of time. The time spent establishing the intimacy that a man may crave is also time away from establishing and maintaining the competitive edge, or the public face. There are no prizes for being a good father, not even when being one is defined narrowly in terms of breadwinning. (34) Social struggles over time are intimate with class and gender. It is not only that the rich and powerful are paid handsomely for the time they sell, have more disposable time, more free time, more control over how they use their time, but the gender dimensions of time use within classes are equally compelling. No one performs less unpaid work, and receives greater remun eration for time spent in paid work, than a male of the ruling class.The changes that are occurring remain uncertain, and there is, of course, a sting in the tail. Madison Avenue has found that emotional lability and soft receptivity to whats new and exciting are more appropriate to a consumer-orientated society than hardness and emotional distance. Past television commercials tended to portray men as Marlboro macho or as idiots, but contemporary viewers see men cooking, feeding babies, and shopping. Insiders in the advertising industry say that the quick and easy cooking sections of magazines and newspapers are as ofttimes to attract male readers as overworked women.U. S. Sports Illustrated now carries advertisements for coffee, cereal, deodorants, and soup. According to Judith Langer, whose market-research firm services A. T. & T. , Gillette. and Pepsico among others, it is now acceptably masculine to care about ones house. (35) The new man that comes at us through the media see ms to reinforce the social order without challenging it. And he brings with him, too, a new con for women. In their increasing assumption of breadwinning, femocratic and skilled worker occupations, the line goes, women render themselves incomplete.They must -give up their femininity in their appropriation of male jobs and power, but men who embrace the feminine become more complete. (36) And if that isnt tricky enough, the new men that seem to be emerging are simply unattractive. Indeed, theyre boring. Connells six changing heterosexual men in the environmental movement were attracted to women who were strong, independent, active. (37) Isnt everybody attracted by these qualities? Gay men find new men irritating and new men are not too sure how keen they should be on each other, and no feminist worth her salt would be seen dead with one.The ruling class Really real men? If the significance of the concept of hegemonic masculinity is that it directs us to look for the contradictions w ithin an autonomous gender system that will cause its transformation, then we must conclude it has failed. The challenges to hegemonic masculinity identified by its theorists and outlined above seem either to be complicit with, or broader than, the gender system that has apparently generated them. I can appreciate why Connell is practically evoke in and theoretically intrigued by arguing against the notion of the externality of gender change. Both experience and theory show the impossibility of liberating a dominant group and the difficulty of constructing a movement based not on the shared interest of a group but on the attempt to dismantle that interest. (38) (My emphasis). The hear is the phrase constructing a movement. It is only a system which has its own dynamics that can produce the social forces necessary to change radically that system. But Connell himself has written that gender is part of the relations of production and has always been so.And similarly, that social sc ience cannot understand the state, the political economy of advanced capitalism. the nature of class, the process of modernisation or the nature of imperialism, the process of socialisation, the structure of consciousness or the politics of knowledge, without a full-blooded analysis of gender. (39) There is nothing outside gender. To be involved in social relations is to be inextricably inside gender. If everything, in this sense, is within gender, why should we be worried about the exteriority of the forces for social change? politics, economics, technology are gendered. We have seen the invisible hand someone wittier than I remarked, It is white, hairy and manicured. Is there, then, some place we can locate exemplars of hegemonic masculinity that are less fractured, more coherent, and and then easier to read? Where its central and defining features can be seen in sharper relief? If the public face of hegemonic masculinity is not necessarily even what powerful men are, then what are they necessarily? Why is it no mean feat to produce the kind of people who can actually operate a capitalist system? (40) Even though the concept hegemony is rooted in concern with class domination, systematic knowledge of ruling class masculinity is fine as yet, but it is certainly intriguing. One aspect of ruling class hegemonic masculinity is the belief that women dont count in big matters, and that they can be dealt with by jocular patronage in little matters. Another is in defining what big and little are. Sexual politics are simply not a problem to men of the ruling class. Senior executives couldnt function as bosses without the patriarchal household.The exercise of this form of power requires quite special conditions conventional femininity and domestic subordination. Two-thirds of male top executives were married to housewives. The qualities of intelligence and the capacity for hard work which these women bring to marriage are matched, as friends of Anita Keating, the wife of the Prime Minister of Australia, remarked, by intense devotion her husband and her children are her life. Colleen Fahey, the wife of the premier of New South Wales, had completed an 18-month part-time horticulture course at her local technical college, and she valued to continue her studies full-time. But my husband wouldnt let met, she said. He said that he didnt think it was right for a mother to have a job when she had a 13-year-old child I think if Id put my foot down and said Id really wanted a career, hed have said, Youre a rotten mother deviation those kids. (41) The case for this sort of behaviour is simply not as compelling for working-class men, the mothers and the wives of most of whom undertake paid work as a matter of course. Success itself can amplify this need for total devotion, while lessening the chances of its fulfilment outside of the domestic realm.For the successful are likely to have difficulty establishing intimate and lasting friendships with other males because of low self-disclosure, homophobia, and cut-throat competition. The corporate world expects men to divulge little of their personal lives and to restrain personal feelings, especially affectionate ones, towards their colleagues while cultivating a certain bland affability. Within the corporate structure, success is achieved through individual competition rather than dyadic or group bonding. The distinction between home and work is crucial and carefully maintained. For men in the corporation, friends have their place outside work. (42) While William Shawcross, the biographer of media mogul Rupert Murdoch, found him courageous and charming, others close to Murdoch set forth him as arrogant, cocky, insensitive, verging on dangerous, utterly ruthless, and an efficient Visigoth. Murdoch himself described his life as consisting of a series of interlocking wars. Shawcross also found that Murdoch possessed an instinctive feel for money and power and how to use them bot h had a relentless, unceasing drive and energy, worked harder and more determinedly than anybody else, was sure that what he was doing was correct, believed that he had become invincible, and was driven by the desire to win at all costs. (43) And how must it feel to know that you can have whatever you want, and that throughout your life you will be looked after in every way, even to the point of never having to dress and undress yourself?Thus the view that hegemonic masculinity is hegemonic insofar as it succeeds in relation to women is true, but partial. Competitiveness, a combination of the calculative and the combative, is institutionalised in business and is central to hegemonic masculinity. The enterprise of winning is life-consuming, and this form of competitiveness is an inward morose competitiveness, focussed on the self, creating, in fact, an instrumentality of the personal. (44)Hegemonic masculinity is a question of how particular groups of men inhabit positions of powe r and wealth, and how they legitimate and reproduce the social relationships that generate their dominance. (45) Through hegemonic masculinity most men benefit from the control of women. For a very few men, it delivers control of other men. To put it another way, the crucial difference between hegemonic masculinity and other masculinities is not the control of women, but the control of men and the representation of this as universal social advancement, to paraphrase Gramsci.Patriarchal capitalism delivers the sense, in advance a man of whatever masculinity even climbs out of bed in the morning, that he is better than half of humankind. But what is the nature of the masculinity confirming not only that, but also delivering power over most men as well? And what are its attractions? A sociology of rulingclass men is long overdue. Footnotes 1. M. Waters. patriarchy and Viriarchy An Exploration and Reconstruction of Concepts of Masculine Domination. Sociology 7 (1989) 143-162. 2. A. Hochschild with A. Machung. The Second Shit Woking parents and the Revolution at Home (New York Viking. 989) 257. 3. M. Donaldson, Time of Our Lives Labour and Love in the Working relegate (Sydney Allen and Unwin, 1991). 3. R. Connell. Theorising sex, Sociology, 19 (1985) 263 R. Connell, The Wrong Stuff Reflections on the Place of Gender in American Sociology. in H. J. Gans, editor, Sociology in America (Newbury-Park Sage Publications 1990), 158 R. Connell, The State, Gender and Sexual Politics Theory and Appraisal , Theory and Society 19/5 (1990) 509-523. 5. Connell. Theorising Gender, 260. 6. R. Connell, Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture (Sydney George Allen and Unwin, 1983), 234-276. 7.T. Carrigan, B. Connell. and J. Lee, Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity. in H. Brod. editor. The do of Masculinities The New Mens Studies (Boston. Allen and Unwin), 75. 8. R. Connell. Gender and Power Society, the Person and Sexual Politics (Sydney Allen and Unwin. 1987), 1 07 Carrigan. Connell and Lee, 95. 9. Carrigan, Connell. and Lee. Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity. 86 Connell, Which Way is Up? 185. 10. Connell, Which Way is Up Connell. Gender and Power R. Connell, A Whole New World Remaking Masculinity in the Context of the Environmental Movement, Gender and Society 4 (1990) 352-378 R.Connell. An Iron gentleman The Body and Some Contradictions of Hegemonic Masculinity, in M. Messner and D. Sabo, editors, Sport, Men and the Gender Order (Champaign. Ill. Human Kinetics Books, 1990) Connell, The State, Gender and Sexual Politics Carrigan, Connell and Lee, 86 R. Chapman. The Great Pretender Variations in the New Man Theme. in R. Chapman and J. Rutherford. editors. .Male Order Unwrapping Masculinity (London Lawrence and Wishart. 1988) 9-18 C. Cockburn. Masculinity, the Left and Feminism. in Male Order103329 P. Lichterman. Making a Politics of Masculinity, Comparative Social Research 11 (1989) 185-208 M. Messner The Meaning of Success The Ath letic Experience and the Development of Male Identity, in The Making of Masculinities193-2 10 J. Rutherford. Whos That Man? in Male Order, 21-67. I I. Connell, Which Way is Up 236, 255, 256. 12. Connell, Which Way is Up 185,186,239. 13. Connell, Iron Man, 83, 94. 14. Connell, Whole New World, 459. 15. D. Hammond and A. Jablow, Gilgamesh and the Sundance Kid The Myth of Male Friendship, in The Making of Masculinities 256 Messner. The Meaning of Success, 198 Connell. Iron Man. 87, 93 Donoghue in Connell. Iron Man, 84-85. 16. Carrigan, Connell, and Lee, Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity Connell, Gender and Power. 17. G. Herek, On Heterosexual Masculinity Some Physical Consequences of the Social Construction of Gender and Sexuality, in M. Kimmel, editor, changing Men, New Directions on Men and Masculinity (Newbury Park Sage. 1987) 71-72 Connell. Whole New World, 369. 18. Carrigan, Connell and Lee, Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity 93 C. Johnson and R. Johnston, The Making of Homosexual Men. in V. Burgmann and J.Lee, editors, fleck the Wattle. A Peoples History of Australia Since 1788. (Fitzroy McPhee Gribble/Penguin, 1988) 91 Connell, Gender and Power 80 Carrigan, Connell and Lee 86. 19. Carrigan, Connell, and Lee. 85 Connell. Gender and Power 116. 20. Johnston and Johnston. Homosexual Men. 94 Carrigan. Connell, and Lee. 74 J. Hearn, The Gender of heaviness Men, Masculinity and the Critique of Marxism (Brighton Wheatsheaf, 1987) Connell, , Gender and Power 60 Connell, Which Way is Up 234. 177-178. 21. Otto in L. Ross. Escaping the Well of Loneliness. Staining the Wattle 107. 22.Connell. Whole New World, 474-475, 477. 23, Lichterman, Making a Politics. 187-188, 201, 204. 24. Hochschild, Second Shift, 239 V. Seidler, Fathering, Authority and Masculinity, Male Order, 276 G. Russell, The Changing Role of Fathers? (St. Lucia University of Queensland Press. 1983), 98. 117 Seidler, Fathering, 287 Hochschild, Second Shift, 249 Connell, Which Way is Up, 3 2. 25. Messner. Meaning of Success, 201. 26. Russell, Changing Role Hochschild, Second Shift, 2, 217, 227 C. Armitage, House Husbands. The Problems They Face, Sydney sunup Herald (4 July 1991) 16. 27. Seidler. Fathering, 298, 290, 295 Russell, Changing Role, 177. 28. Bicknell, Neville Wran A Secret Sadness, New Idea (May 11, 1991) 18. 29. Russell, Changing Role, 128-129, 135-136. 30, Seidler. Fathering, 283. 31. Hochschild, Second Shift, 218, 237 P. Stein. Men in Families, Marriage and Family Review 7 (1984) 155. 32. Hochschild, Second Shift, 216 Defrain in Stein, Men in Families. 156 E. Prescott, New Men, American Demographics 5 (1983) 19. 33. Connell. Whole New World. 465 Seidler, Fathering, 275. 31. Donaldson, Time of Our Lives, 20-29. 35. Chapman, Great Pretender, 212 Prescott, New Men. 16, 20, 18. 36. Chapman, Great Pretender, 213. 37. Connell, Whole New World, 465. 38. Connell, Whole New World, 176. 39. Connell, Gender and Power, 15 Connell, The Wrong Stuff, 161. 40. Connel l, Which Way is Up 71. 41. R. Connell, Teachers Work (Sydney George Allen and Unwin, 1985). 187 Connell. Which Way is Up 71 Hochschild, Second Shift, 255 N. Barrowblough and P. McGeough. Woman of Mystery. The Trump Card Keating Hasnt Played, Sydney Morning Herald, (8 June 1991) 35. D. Cameron. Just an Average Mrs. Premier, Sydney Morning Herald, (28 Nov. 1992) 41. 42. M.Barrett, Womens Oppression Today Problems in . Marxist Feminist Analysis (London Verso, 1980) 187-216 Messner, Meaning of Success. 201 R. Ochberg, The Male Career Code and The Ideology of Role, in The Making of Masculinities 173. 184 Hammond and Jablow, 255-256 Illawarra Mercury, Family Comments Greeted with Fury. (1 December 1992) 7. 43. W. Shawcross, Rupert Murdoch, Ringmaster of the instruction Circus (Sydney Random House. 1992). 44. Carrigan. Connell. and Lee, 92 Connell, Gender and Power, 156 Connell. Iron Man. 91 Seidler. Fathering, 279. 45. Carrigan, Connell, and Lee, 92.